{"id":348,"date":"2021-05-27T08:04:28","date_gmt":"2021-05-27T08:04:28","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/?page_id=348"},"modified":"2022-04-18T08:13:28","modified_gmt":"2022-04-18T08:13:28","slug":"348-2","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/?page_id=348","title":{"rendered":"‘To Be’"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

The verb ‘to be’ is one of the most fundamental and most complex in most Indo-European languages. It often functions as a lexical verb ‘to exist’, an auxiliary in forming other verbs (e.g. I am singing<\/em>) and as a copula (e.g. I am hungry<\/em>). In the modern Celtic languages it is used extensively as a way of forming simple verbs (e.g ta mee tioggal<\/em> ‘I understand’, dw i’n dy garu di <\/em>‘I love you’); it is also essential for forming the possessive idiom (e.g. tha b\u00f3 aig Iain <\/em>‘John has a cow’).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Below, the forms of the Brythonic and Goidelic verbs are given separately with a discussion of their history and use.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Brythonic<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Welsh<\/th>Cornish<\/th>Breton<\/th><\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
bod<\/td>bos, bones<\/td>beza\u00f1<\/td><\/td><\/tr>
Present Indicative
wyf
wyt
yw, oes
\u0177m
ych
\u0177nt
ys<\/td>		Present Indicative
ov
os
yw, eus, usi
on
owgh
yns
or<\/td>		Present
on
out
zo, eo, eus
omp
oc’h
int
oar, eur<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
Future\/Consuetudinal Present
byddaf
byddi
bydd
byddwn
byddwch
byddant
byddir<\/td>		Future\/Habitual Present
bedhav
bedhydh
bydh
bedhyn
bedhowgh
bedhons
bedher<\/td>		Future
bezin
bezi
bezo
bezimp
bezot
bezint
bezor<\/td>		Present Habitual
bezan
bezez
bez
bezomp
bezit
bezont
bezer<\/td><\/tr>
Imperfect Indicative
oeddwn
oeddit
oedd
oeddem
oeddech
oeddynt
oeddid<\/td>		Imperfect Indicative
en
es
o
en
ewgh
ens
os<\/td>		Imperfect
oan
oas
oa
oamp
oac’h
oant
oad<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
Consuetudinal Imperfect
byddwn
byddit
byddai
byddem
byddech
byddent
byddid<\/td>		Habitual Past
bedhen
bedhes
bedha
bedhen
bedhewgh
bedhens
bedhes<\/td>		Habitual Imperfect
bezen
bezes
beze
bezemp
bezec’h
bezent
bezed<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
Past
b\u00fbm
buost
bu
buom
buoch
buant, buont
buwyd<\/td>		Preterite
beuv
beus
beu
beun
bewgh
bons
beus<\/td>		Past Definite
boen
boes
boe
boemp
boec’h
boent
boed<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
Pluperfect
buaswn
buasit
buasai
buasem
buasech
buasent
buasid<\/td>		Conditional\/Pluperfect
bien
bies
bia
bien
biewgh
biens
bies<\/td>		 <\/td><\/td><\/tr>
Present Subjunctive
bwyf
bych
bo
b\u00f4m
boch
b\u00f4nt
bydder<\/td>		Present\/Future Subjunctive
biv
bi
bo
byn
bowgh
bons
ber<\/td>		Present Conditional
befen
befes
befe
befemp
befec’h
befent
befed<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
Imperfect Subjunctive
bawn
bait
bai
baem
baech
baent
byddid<\/td>		Imperfect Subjunctive
ben
bes
be
ben
bewgh
bens
bes<\/td>		Past Conditional
bijen
bijes
bije
bijemp
bijec’h
bijent
bijed<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
Imperative
–
bydd
bydded
byddwn
byddwch
byddent
bydder<\/td>		Imperative
–
bydh
bedhes
bedhyn
bedhewgh
bedhens
–<\/td>		Imperative
–
bez
bezet
bezomp
bezit
bezent
–<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
Mae<\/em>
–
–
y mae
–
–
maint
–<\/td>		Yma<\/em>
–
–
yma
–
–
ymons
–<\/td>		Present Locative
emaon
emaout
ema\u00f1
emaomp
emao’ch
emaint
emeur<\/td>		Imperfect Locative
edon
edos
edo
edomp
edoc’h
edont
edod<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Notes:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
  • The Brythonic ‘to be’ is largely constructed by analogy with the regular verbs. The PC. stem *bij- <\/em>is used extensively with regular endings to create tenses which did not occur in PC and may have been re-analysed again later (e.g. Br. *bijame > byddaf<\/em>, by analogy byddwn <\/em>etc). PC *bij- <\/em>is just one of several stems which come from PIE. *b\u02b0uH-<\/em>, which also gives E. be<\/em>, L. fui.<\/li>
  • The verb noun is from PC. *but\u0101<\/em>. C. bones <\/em>is formed by analogy to mynnes <\/em>‘go’. B. beza\u00f1 <\/em>is a regular formation from the stem bez<\/em>, but the form bout <\/em>also exists.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

    Present Indicative<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
    • The present indicative is formed from the PIE copula in *es- <\/em>(cf. E. is<\/em>, L. est). The plurals are for PC. *esmes, *este, *senti<\/em> with the 2nd plural reformed on the basis of regular verbs. The existence of original h- <\/em>on W. \u0177nt <\/em>is shown by MW. yttynt <\/em>with provection. The development of the singular forms is not properly known, but W. *wy- <\/em>probably derives from Br. *\u0113- < *ese-<\/em>. 3rd singular WC. yw<\/em>, B. eo<\/em> is the same with metathesis. The W. impersonal ys <\/em>shows the original PIE 3rd singular *esti<\/em>.<\/li>
    • In each of the Brythonic languages, there are several forms of the 3rd person singular:
      • WC. yw<\/em>, B. eo <\/em>are used as the copula when the complement precedes the verb.<\/li>
      • W. oes<\/em>, CB. eus <\/em>are used in negative and interrogative sentences when the subject is indefinite.<\/li>
      • C. usi <\/em>is used in negative and interrogative sentences when the subject is definite (W & B use yw, eo<\/em>).<\/li><\/ul><\/li>
      • The Breton locative forms are an extension of the original verb ema\u00f1<\/em>.  This and its W & C. cognates originally seem to have been a form of the 3rd singular present reserved for use with prepositions etc (note W. ble mae <\/em>‘where is?’). Its use as an auxiliary verb has led to it becoming the most commonly used form of the verb in Welsh (e.g. mae Twm yn cysgu <\/em>‘Tom is sleeping’).
        • The origins of this verb are not known for sure. One suggestion is PC. *esmi est <\/em>‘here is’ > *emmijest > *ymoedd > ymae<\/em>, but *emmijest <\/em>ought to yield W. *ymydd <\/em>as *dijen <\/em>(Acc.) yields dydd<\/em>. B. ema\u00f1 <\/em>points to a nasal ending and a possible connection with ama\u00f1 <\/em>‘there’, -ma\u00f1 <\/em>‘this’ (W. yma<\/em>, MW. yman<\/em>, C. omma<\/em>), which may be PC. * esmi anda <\/em>(cf. IG. ann <\/em>‘there’). It is possible that more than one ending is at work here, or that Breton was altered by association with ama\u00f1<\/em>. Welsh could be from PC. *esmi esV- <\/em>(where esV-<\/em> represents some form of the verb) > *ehmi ehV- > *emme \u025b\u0304- > *ym-oe > ymae <\/em>(cf. PC. *swes\u016br <\/em>> *hweh\u012br > *hw\u025b\u0304\u012br > *hw\u025b\u0304r > *hwoer > <\/em>W. chwaer<\/em>,C. hwor<\/em>,B. c’hoar <\/em>‘sister’).<\/li><\/ul><\/li>
        • Welsh has alternative forms of the present with yd- <\/em>(e.g. ydwyf, ydyw<\/em>), though it adds no additional information. Cornish has 1st and 2nd persons forms with es- <\/em>(e.g. esov, esowgh<\/em>), which are considered to be part of the conjugation of yma<\/em>. These ‘long forms’ are substantive verbs <\/em>(showing where something is or what it’s doing), as opposed to the copula <\/em>(which shows what something is).
          • The origin of W. yd-<\/em>, C. es- <\/em>is rather confused. It seems originally to have been the verbal particle (W. y(r)<\/em>, C. y(th)<\/em>, B. e(z)<\/em>), which occurs in OW. and OB. as it <\/em>(= W. yd<\/em>). At some point this became fused to the W & C. verbs under certain conditions. Once the form was fused, the independent particle came to viewed separately. In Cornish, it may be added before the ‘long forms’ (e.g. yth esov <\/em>‘I am’). In Welsh, the particle became yr <\/em>from the 14th century and the forms yr wyf <\/em>and ydwyf <\/em>etc. were limited to different environments. To confuse matters further, the y <\/em>of y mae <\/em>came to be seen as a form of yr <\/em>and became optional. Cornish seems to preserve the original particle in the ‘long’ impersonal eder<\/em>.<\/li>
          • In Breton, the verbal particle e<\/em> (ez, ec’h<\/em>) appears to have remained as such, except before 3rd singular forms of mont <\/em>‘go’ where it appears as y- <\/em>(e.g. yelo<\/em> ‘he will go’) – a late development. However, it is possible that the imperfect locative forms were originally imperfect indicative forms with a particle *ed <\/em>preceding (e.g *ed oan <\/em>‘I was (there)’ > edon<\/em>).<\/li><\/ul><\/li>
          • As well as the literary forms given above, Welsh also has a number of colloquial forms. In the present these are dw, wyt, mae, dan, dach, maen <\/em>in the North and rw, wyt, mae, \u0177n, ych, maen <\/em>in the South. Initial d- <\/em>or r- <\/em>is from the particle yd-, yr<\/em>; dw i<\/em> ‘I am’ is for ydwyf i<\/em>. Revived Late Cornish also has alternative forms: th om, th os, th ew, th on, th o’<\/em>, th ens <\/em>or th o’vy, th o’chy, th ew e’\/hei, th o’nei, th o’hwei, th en’jei<\/em>. These are from the particle yth<\/em> + the verb (+ the pronoun).<\/li>
          • Welsh has a special present relative: ysydd <\/em>‘that is’, usually shortened to sydd<\/em> or even sy’ <\/em>today. This comes from the PC. *estijo<\/em>, with the subordinating clitic -jo<\/em> seen in Gaulish. Cornish usi <\/em>may also originate here and still retains a relative sense (e.g. tynneuch an gasadow, usy ow c\u00fbl fals dewow, yn m\u00eas agan temple ny<\/em> ‘drag the wretched woman, who is making false gods, out of our temple’). The Breton zo <\/em>is used in a similar way, when the subject precedes the verb (e.g. me a zo <\/em>‘I am’), but always with the relative pronoun and is probably from the same source.<\/li>
          • Welsh also has two subordinating forms of ‘to be’: taw <\/em>and mai <\/em>‘that it is’ (e.g. Gwybyddwch mai yr Arglwydd sydd Dduw <\/em>‘Know that it is the Lord who is God’.). Mai<\/em> is another form of y mae<\/em>. Taw<\/em>, which is only used in the south, is from PC. *(s)t\u0101<\/em> (cf. I. t\u00e1<\/em>, Spanish estar<\/em>, E. stand<\/em>).<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

            Other Tenses<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
            • The imperfect indicative is probably, like the present, derived from PIE. *es-<\/em>. The 3rd singular may be from PC. *es\u0101t<\/em>, but this is not certain. In any case the rest of the tense is formed by analogy on the 3rd singular.<\/li>
            • The past, pluperfect and subjunctive tenses are all based on that original PIE. b- <\/em>stem; in each case, the tense is created analogically from the 3rd singular. The B. conditional tenses are regular; the present probably based on bez<\/em> and the past probably on the original 3rd singular, equivalent to W. bai<\/em>, C. be<\/em>.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

              ‘To Have’<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
              • In both Breton and Cornish, special forms of ‘to be’ have developed with the meaning ‘to have’. The present tenses are given below:
                • Breton endevout, kaout<\/em>: am eus, ac’h eus, en\/he deus, hon eus, hoc’h eus, o deus<\/em>.<\/li>
                • Cornish kavas<\/em>:  y’m beus, y’th eus, y’n jeves\/y’s teves, y’gan beus, y’gas beus, y’s teves<\/em>.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>
                • The verb consists of the particle (B. e<\/em>, C. y<\/em>)+ infixed pronoun + 3rd singular ‘<\/em>to be‘<\/em>, or prefixed pronoun + 3rd singular ‘to be’ (Breton only has infixed pronouns for 1st & 2nd singular).<\/li>
                • The semantics are based on the common Brythonic practice of using the accusative case to mark the indirect object of an intransitive verb. The normal possessive structure in Celtic is to use ‘to be’ with a preposition: W. mae imi dri o blant <\/em>‘I have 3 children’, lit. ‘there are three children to me’. Here, ‘me’ is the indirect object of ‘to be’, but since ‘to be’ can’t take a direct object, the accusative alone suffices: y’th eus <\/em>therefore means ‘it is [to] you’ = ‘you have’. Welsh preserves an almost identical structure in the imperative moes <\/em>‘give me!’ < PC. moi esti.<\/em><\/li>
                • The verb nouns kaout<\/em> and kavas <\/em>are the equivalent of W. cael, cafael <\/em>‘to have, get, find’. B. endevout <\/em>would appear to be en- <\/em>‘in’, or possibly the reflexive prefix (W. ym-<\/em>), <\/em>or thepronoun en <\/em>‘he’ + de- <\/em>‘to’ + bout <\/em>‘to be’ (cf. W. dyfod<\/em>, C. devos <\/em>‘come’).<\/li>
                • B. am eus, ac’h eus<\/em> are alternatives to em eus, ec’h eus<\/em>, which are the more correct forms. The 2nd singular ac’h <\/em>occurs only in the present (other tenses have the expected az<\/em>) – it may be an attempt to distinguish from the particle ez<\/em> before the vowel (cf. en ez eus tud <\/em>‘there are people there’).<\/li>
                • C. beus <\/em>is a back-formation on eus<\/em> based on the other tenses in b-<\/em>, as shown by correct y’th eus<\/em>. Compare the imperfect y’m bo <\/em>‘I had’, y’th o <\/em>‘you had’ < o <\/em>‘was’. The real b- <\/em>tenses all have correctly mutated b > f<\/em> (e.g. y’ fydh <\/em>‘you will have’).<\/li>
                • 3rd person forms in both Breton and Cornish have de- <\/em>‘to’ prefixed (cf. prepositions, which also have ‘to’ infixed in the third person: B. anezhi<\/em>, C. anedhi <\/em>‘of her’ vs. B. ac’hanon<\/em>, C. ahanav <\/em>‘of me’). In Breton it is added directly to eus<\/em>, but in Cornish it is added to a reduced form of beus <\/em>(cf. Jenner’s am bes <\/em>‘I have’, an jeves <\/em>‘he has’).<\/li>
                • The remaining tenses are formed much like the present.<\/li>
                • The Breton conditional present appears to preserve the original form of befe <\/em>‘[if] it is’ as be <\/em>(W. bai<\/em>, C. be<\/em>?). The forms em pe, az pe <\/em>etc. occur alongside regular am befe, az befe<\/em>. 3rd person defe <\/em>may be for original *deve<\/em>, altered in accordance with the regular conditional ending -fe<\/em>. The Cornish subjunctive y’n jeffo <\/em>‘may he have’, y’n jeffa <\/em>‘would that he had’ similarly has the regular devoicing of subjunctive stems, as if the stem was *def-, dev- <\/em>with the regular ending. This is carried further in the Breton imperative, where the irregular forms en defet, o defent <\/em>occur beside expected devezet<\/em>. Ho pet <\/em>‘you, have!’ may preserve the original 2nd plural imperative seen in W. bid<\/em>.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

                  Goidelic<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

                  Substantive<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
                  Irish<\/th>Scottish<\/th>Manx<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
                  bheith<\/td>bith<\/td>ve<\/td><\/tr>
                  Present (independent)
                  t\u00e1im
                  t\u00e1imid
                  t\u00e1
                  t\u00e1thar<\/td>                  		Present (independent)
                  –
                  –
                  tha
                  –<\/td>                  		Present (independent)
                  –
                  –
                  ta
                  –<\/td><\/tr>
                  Present (dependent)
                  n\u00edlim
                  nIlimid
                  n\u00edl
                  n\u00edltear<\/td>                  		Present (dependent)
                  –
                  –
                  bheil, ‘eil
                  –<\/td>                  		Present (dependent)
                  –
                  –
                  vel, nel
                  –<\/td><\/tr>
                  go bhfuil
                  go bhfuilimid
                  go bhfuil
                  go bhfuiltear<\/td>                  		 <\/td> <\/td><\/tr>
                  Present Habitual
                  b\u00edm
                  b\u00edmid
                  b\u00edonn
                  b\u00edtear<\/td>                  		 <\/td> <\/td><\/tr>
                  Future
                  beidh
                  beimid
                  beidh
                  beifear<\/td>                  		Future (ind.)
                  –
                  –
                  bithidh
                  –<\/td>                  		Future (dep.)
                  –
                  –
                  bi
                  –<\/td><\/tr>
                  Past (independent)
                  bh\u00ed
                  bh\u00edomar
                  bh\u00ed
                  bh\u00edothas<\/td>                  		Past (independent)
                  –
                  –
                  bha
                  –<\/td>                  		Past (independent)
                  –
                  –
                  va
                  –<\/td><\/tr>
                  Past (dependent)
                  raibh
                  rabhamar
                  raibh
                  rabhthas<\/td>                  		Past (dependent)
                  –
                  –
                  robh
                  –<\/td>                  		Past (dependent)
                  –
                  –
                  row
                  –<\/td><\/tr>
                  Conditional
                  bheinn
                  bheife\u00e1
                  bheadh
                  bheimis
                  bheadh
                  bheidis
                  bheifi<\/td>                  		 <\/td>Conditional
                  veign\/beign
                  –
                  veagh\/beagh
                  –
                  –
                  –
                  –<\/td><\/tr>
                  Present Subjunctive
                  raibh
                  rabhaimid
                  raibh
                  rabhthar<\/td>                  		<\/td><\/td><\/tr>
                   <\/td>Past Subjunctive
                  bhithinn
                  bhitheamaid
                  bhitheadh<\/td>                  		 <\/td><\/tr>
                  Imperative
                  b\u00edm
                  b\u00ed
                  b\u00edodh
                  b\u00edmis
                  b\u00edg\u00ed
                  b\u00edd\u00eds
                  b\u00edtear<\/td>                  		Imperative
                  bitheam
                  bi
                  bitheadh
                  bitheamaid
                  bithidh
                  bitheadh
                  –<\/td>                  		Imperative
                  –
                  bee
                  –
                  –
                  bee-jee
                  –
                  –<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

                  Copula<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
                  <\/th><\/th>Irish<\/th>Scottish<\/th>Manx<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
                  Present\/Future<\/td>Ind.
                  Dep.
                  Interr.
                  Rel.
                  Indir.<\/td>                  		is
                  gur(b)
                  an?
                  is
                  ar(b)<\/td>                  		is
                  gur
                  –
                  as
                  –<\/td>                  		s’, she
                  nee, re
                  –
                  –
                  –<\/td><\/tr>
                  Past\/Conditional<\/td>Ind.
                  Dep.
                  Interr.
                  Rel.
                  Indir.<\/td>                  		ba, b’
                  gur(bh)
                  ar(bh)?
                  ba, ab
                  ar(bh)<\/td>                  		bu
                  gu’m bu
                  –
                  –
                  –<\/td>                  		by
                  by
                  –
                  –
                  –<\/td><\/tr>
                  Present Subjunctive<\/td> <\/td>gura(b)<\/td>gur<\/td> <\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

                  Notes:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  • The Goidelic languages have separate substantive and copular verbs:
                    • The substantive is used to link the subject with an adjective or to describe a temporary state<\/li>
                    • The copula is used to link the subject with a noun or pronoun, or to describe a permanent state<\/li><\/ul><\/li>
                    • In the substantive verb G. & M. generally use the 3rd singular for all persons (e.g. M. ta mee <\/em>‘I am’). In Irish, however, most tenses have special forms for the 1st person singular and plural, using the 3rd singular in all other cases (e.g. t\u00e1im <\/em>‘I am’, t\u00e1imid <\/em>‘we are’). These 1st person forms are not direct ancestors of the OI conjugation, but later reformations based on the adjacent pronoun (e.g. t\u00e1 m\u00e9 > t\u00e1im<\/em>).<\/li>
                    • Irish also makes use of the autonomous verb (e.g. t\u00e1thar<\/em>), which is the exact equivalent of the W. impersonal.<\/li>
                    • Several tenses have both dependent and independent forms. The dependent form is that used with a preverbal particle.<\/li>
                    • The substantive present tense is based on PC. *(s)t\u0101 <\/em>(W. taw<\/em>, Spanish estar<\/em>). The dependent forms are from OI fil<\/em>, originally a 2nd person imperative meaning ‘behold’ < PC. *wel-<\/em>, the same root as W. gweld<\/em>, C. gweles <\/em>‘see’. The modern languages all have initial [v], showing eclipsis of the original. I. n\u00edl <\/em>is a compound of n\u00ed fhuil <\/em>‘is not’. In Ulster Irish, G. & M. the negative particle is cha(n)<\/em>, leading to Ulster I. chan fhuil<\/em>, G. chan ‘eil<\/em>, M. cha nel<\/em>.
                      • OI: (1s) t\u00e1u, t\u00f3<\/em>, (2s) ta\u00ed<\/em>, (3s) t\u00e1<\/em>; (1p) taam<\/em>, (2p) taaid, taid, taad<\/em>, (3p) t\u00e1t<\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/li>
                      • The I. future and G. future independent appear to be from OI bid<\/em>, 3rd singular future absolute of the copula. The G. dependent and M. are from the OI 3rd singular conjunct bia <\/em>of the substantive verb.<\/li>
                      • The G. & M. past independent are from OI ba<\/em>, 3rd singular preterite absolute of the copula verb. The Irish seems to be from OI bo\u00ed<\/em>, 3rd singular preterite absolute of the substantive verb.<\/li>
                      • The past dependent forms are formed from the OI particle ro <\/em>(G. ro <\/em>‘very’, W. rhy <\/em>‘very’, C. re<\/em>) followed by the preterite.<\/li>
                      • The conditional would appear to be derived from the OI. preterite subjunctive:
                        • (1s) beinn<\/em>, (2s) betha<\/em>, (3s) beth, bed<\/em>; (1p) bemmis<\/em>, (2p) bethe<\/em>, (3p) betis<\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/li>
                        • The imperative is a reformation based on 2nd singular OI b\u00ed<\/em> and perhaps also 3rd singular b\u00edth<\/em>.<\/li>
                        • The present\/future copula:
                          • independent is taken from OI is <\/em>‘it is’.<\/li>
                          • I. & G. dependent forms are OI co <\/em>‘to’ + ro <\/em>(particle) + ba <\/em>(future copula). M. appears to preserve a more genuine OI form n\u00ed<\/em>, the negative 3rd singular present; M. ree <\/em>is probably formed with ro <\/em>(verbal particle) by analogy.<\/li>
                          • I. an <\/em>(interrogative) is the interrogative particle with verb omitted.<\/li>
                          • G & I. direct relative is from OI as<\/em>, with the relative particle a<\/em>.<\/li>
                          • I. ar(b) <\/em>is the same as gur(b) <\/em>with the relative particle.<\/li><\/ul><\/li>
                          • Past\/conditional copula:
                            • independent I. ba<\/em>, G. bu<\/em>, M. by<\/em> are from OI ba<\/em>, 3rd singular of the preterite, though G & M may have spread by analogy from the OI conjunct forms (below).<\/li>
                            • I. gur(bh) <\/em>is the same formation as the present, but with -bh <\/em>representing OI bo <\/em>or bu <\/em>(OI corbu<\/em>). G. gu’m <\/em>is from OI con<\/em>, considered to be either a form of the preposition co <\/em>‘to’ or com <\/em>‘with’ (W. cyf-<\/em>); the G. -m<\/em> is due to assimilation with the following b-.<\/em><\/li>
                            • I. interrogative ar(bh)? <\/em>is the preterite interrogative particle ar <\/em>+ bh- <\/em>from the following verb. The indirect relative ar(bh) <\/em>is the same, with the particle ar<\/em>.<\/li>
                            • The I. relative ba<\/em> is from OI ba <\/em>relative preterite.<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

                              The verb ‘to be’ is one of the most fundamental and most complex in most Indo-European languages. It often functions…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/348"}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=348"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/348\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":354,"href":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/348\/revisions\/354"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=348"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}