{"id":388,"date":"2021-05-28T11:18:20","date_gmt":"2021-05-28T11:18:20","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/?page_id=388"},"modified":"2021-05-30T18:35:13","modified_gmt":"2021-05-30T18:35:13","slug":"manx","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/?page_id=388","title":{"rendered":"Manx"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Manx<\/strong> (Gaelg <\/em>\/g\u026alg\/) is a Gaelic language which originated and is predominantly still spoken in the Isle of Man.  Having developed from Middle Irish it is closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic, but it has also seen influences from Old Norse and English.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Until around 1800 Manx was the primary language of the people of Mann, but economic pressures and an influx of migrants from the north west of England in the 19th century forced the language into a swift decline and it was replaced by English.  By 1950 there were only around ten native speakers of Manx remaining but by that point a revival had already begun.  In 1899 Yn Cheshaght Ghailckagh <\/em>was set up to help preserve and teach the language, ensuring that valuable resources would still be available when the popularity of Manx grew again in the late 20th century.  In 2001 the Bunscoill Ghaelgagh<\/em>, a primary school dedicated to teaching in Manx alone, was set up and in the same year over 1,500 people claimed to have some knowledge of Manx.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Phonology and Orthography<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Unlike Irish and Scottish Gaelic, Manx orthography is not based on the conventions of Middle Irish but was developed on its own from the 16th century and is based on English and Welsh systems.  Like English, modern Manx spelling is inconsistent and not entirely phonetic.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Vowels<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
<\/th>Front<\/th>Central<\/th>Back<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
High<\/th>i, y, ae, oi<\/em> [\u026a i]
ee <\/em>[\u026a\u02d0 i\u02d0]<\/td>		 <\/td>u<\/em> [\u028a u]
oo <\/em>[u\u02d0]<\/td><\/tr>
Closed Mid<\/th>e, ay, ei<\/em> [\u025b e]
e, aa\/ea, ai <\/em>[\u025b\u02d0 e\u02d0]<\/td>		a, u, y<\/em> [\u0259 \u0268]<\/td>o, oh <\/em>[\u0254 o]<\/td><\/tr>
Low<\/th>a<\/em> [a \u00e6]<\/td> <\/td>a<\/em> [\u0251]<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Where vowels are given in pairs, the first represents vowels adjacent to broad<\/strong> consonants, and the second to slender<\/strong> consonants. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The following diphthongs occur: ie <\/em>\/ai\/, ai, aai<\/em> \/ei\/, oai, oi<\/em> \/oi\/, ui <\/em>\/ui\/, aew, ou<\/em> \/eu\/, eu <\/em>\/iu\/, ia <\/em>\/i\u0259\/, ooa, ua<\/em> \/u\u0259\/.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Consonants<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
<\/th>Labial<\/th>Dental<\/th>Postalveolar<\/th>Palatal<\/th>Velar<\/th>Glottal<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
Stop<\/th>p<\/em> \/p\/
b<\/em> \/b b\u02b2\/<\/td>		t <\/em>\/t t\u02b2\/
d, tt <\/em>\/d d\u02b2\/<\/td>		<\/td><\/td> c, k, qu <\/em>\/k k\u02b2\/
g <\/em>\/g g\u02b2\/<\/td>		 <\/td><\/tr>
Nasal<\/th> m <\/em>\/m\/<\/td>n <\/em>\/n n\u02b2\/<\/td> <\/td><\/td> ng <\/em>\/\u014b\/<\/td> <\/td><\/tr>
Tap<\/th><\/td>r, rr <\/em>\/r\/<\/td><\/td><\/td><\/td><\/td><\/tr>
Fricative<\/th>f, ph <\/em>\/f\/
v <\/em>\/v\/<\/td>		s, ss <\/em>\/s\/<\/td>sh <\/em>\/\u0283\/<\/td> <\/td>ch, gh(t) <\/em>\/x x\u02b2\/<\/td> h <\/em>\/h\/<\/td><\/tr>
Affricate<\/th> <\/td> <\/td>\u00e7h <\/em>\/\u02a7\/
j <\/em>\/\u02a4\/<\/td>		<\/td> <\/td> <\/td><\/tr>
Approximant<\/th> <\/td>l, ll, lh <\/em>\/l l\u02b2\/<\/td><\/td>y <\/em>\/j\/<\/td> <\/td> <\/td><\/tr>
Semivowel<\/th>w <\/em>\/w\/<\/td><\/td> <\/td> <\/td> <\/td> <\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Some consonants have two qualities:  slender<\/strong> when i <\/em>or e<\/em> follow, broad <\/strong>elsewhere.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Initial Mutations<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Manx has two initial consonant mutations, lenition<\/strong> and nasalisation<\/strong>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Radical<\/th>Lenition<\/th>Nasalisation<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
b<\/em><\/td>v<\/em><\/td>m<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
bw, mw<\/em><\/td>w<\/em><\/td>mw<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
c, k<\/em><\/td>ch<\/em><\/td>g<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
\u00e7h<\/em><\/td>h<\/em><\/td>j<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
d, dh<\/em><\/td>gh<\/em><\/td>n<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
f<\/em><\/td>–<\/em><\/td>v<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
g<\/em><\/td>gh, y<\/em><\/td>n’gh, ng<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
j<\/em><\/td>y<\/em><\/td>n’y<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
m<\/em><\/td>v<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/tr>
p<\/em><\/td>ph<\/em><\/td>b<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
qu<\/em><\/td>wh<\/em><\/td>gu<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
s, sh<\/em><\/td>h<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/tr>
t, th<\/em><\/td>h<\/em><\/td>d, dh<\/em><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Notes:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

  • when g <\/em>is a broad consonant (i.e. followed by a, o, u<\/em>), its lenited form is gh<\/em>; when is it followed by i <\/em>(or e<\/em>) it is lenited to y<\/em>.  Some writers use gh <\/em>for both.<\/li>
  • the consonant clusters sl, str <\/em>and sn <\/em>are lenited to l, tr, n<\/em>.<\/li>
  • eclipsis causes an prefixed n- <\/em>to be added to initial vowels.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

    Manx also has an h- <\/em>prefix, which is added to initial vowels following certain pronouns, articles and particles (e.g. e habane<\/em> ‘her ankle’).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Grammar<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

    Articles<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

    There is no indefinite article in Manx. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The definite article is declined in the following ways:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    <\/th>Masc Sg<\/th>Fem Sg<\/th>Plural<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
    Nom\/Acc\/Dat.<\/th>y, yn, ‘n<\/em><\/td>ny<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
    Gen.<\/th>y, yn<\/em><\/td>ny<\/em><\/td>ny<\/em><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    The basic form is yn <\/em>(e.g. yn dooiney <\/em>“the man”), but this is often reduced to y <\/em>before a consonant (e.g. y dooiney<\/em>).  The form ‘n <\/em>is used after a vowel (e.g. da’n dooiney <\/em>“to the man”)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Nouns<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

    Nouns are masculine or feminine in gender. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Plurals <\/strong>may be formed by:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    • changing an internal vowel:  kione <\/em>“head” \u2192 king, boayrd <\/em>“table” \u2192 buird<\/em><\/li>
    • changing -agh \u2192 -ee<\/em>:  Frangagh <\/em>“Frenchman” \u2192 Frangee<\/em><\/li>
    • adding the suffix -yn<\/em>:  thie <\/em>“house” \u2192 thieyn<\/em><\/li>
    • adding -yn <\/em>with some internal change:  feeackle <\/em>“tooth” \u2192 feeacklyn<\/em><\/li>
    • adding -aghyn<\/em>, with or without internal change:  braar <\/em>“brother” \u2192 braaraghyn<\/em>, \u00e7hengey <\/em>“tongue” \u2192 \u00e7hengaghyn<\/em><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

      The distinction of case <\/strong>in nouns has now largely been eroded.  Some nouns have a separate genitive singular form (e.g. baase <\/em>“death”, gen. baaish<\/em>) but in most cases the nominative singular may be used instead.  The dative singular survives only in a few set phrases, e.g. ry-chosh <\/em>“on foot” from cass <\/em>“foot”).  Only one genitive plural remains: keyrragh <\/em>from keyrrey <\/em>“sheep”). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Adjectives<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      Adjectives are usually placed after the noun they qualify though shenn <\/em>“old” and drogh <\/em>“bad” usually come before, causing lenition (e.g. shenn dhooiney <\/em>“old man”).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Some adjectives have a plural<\/strong> form, used when qualifying a plural noun, which takes -ey<\/em>, e.g. beg <\/em>“small” \u2192 beggey<\/em>, trome <\/em>“heavy” \u2192 tromey.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Adjectives form the comparative in a number of ways:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      • by adding -ey:  meen <\/em>“fine” \u2192 meeney<\/em><\/li>
      • by internal change: garroo <\/em>“rough” \u2192 girroo<\/em><\/li>
      • by changing -agh \u2192 -ee<\/em>:  booiagh <\/em>“pleased” \u2192 booiee<\/em><\/li>
      • with the adverb smoo <\/em>“more”:  smoo jesh <\/em>“tidier”<\/li>
      • irregularly:<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n
        aashagh<\/em><\/td>easy<\/td>sassey<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        aeg<\/em><\/td>young<\/td>saa<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        ard<\/em><\/td>high<\/td>syrjey<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        beg<\/em><\/td>small<\/td>sloo<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        faggys<\/em><\/td>near<\/td>sniessey<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        foddey<\/em><\/td>distant<\/td>sodjey<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        lajer<\/em><\/td>strong<\/td>stroshey<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        leah<\/em><\/td>quick<\/td>sleaie<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        lhean<\/em><\/td>broad<\/td>shlea<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        mie<\/em><\/td>good<\/td>share<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        mooar<\/em><\/td>big<\/td>smoo<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        olk<\/em><\/td>bad<\/td>smessey<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        shenn<\/em><\/td>old<\/td>shinney<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        trome<\/em><\/td>heavy<\/td>strimmey<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        ymmodee<\/em><\/td>many<\/td>shliee<\/em><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

        Pronouns<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        Personal<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
        <\/th>Simple<\/th>Emphatic<\/th>Possessive<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
        1s<\/th>mee<\/em><\/td>mish<\/em><\/td>my<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        2s<\/th>oo<\/em><\/td>uss<\/em><\/td>dty<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        3sm<\/th>eh<\/em><\/td>eshyn<\/em><\/td>e<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        3sf<\/th>ee<\/em><\/td>ish<\/em><\/td>e<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        1p<\/th>shin<\/em><\/td>shinyn<\/em><\/td>nyn<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        2p<\/th>shiu<\/em><\/td>shiuish<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        3p<\/th>ad<\/em><\/td>adsyn<\/em><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

        The simple pronouns are used after forms of “to be”.  After ta<\/em>, the 2s form is ou<\/em>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

        Manx has a t\/v contrast between the second person pronouns, in which the plural form shiu <\/em>is often used as a polite form with a singular subject. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

        The possessive <\/strong>adjectives may be replaced by the article with the preposition ec <\/em>‘at’ following the noun (e.g. e hengey <\/em>‘his tongue’ \u2192 y hengey echey<\/em>; nyn gayt <\/em>‘their cat’ \u2192 y chayt oc<\/em>).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        Verbs<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        Many verbs in Manx are conjugated with the auxiliary ve <\/em>“to be”.  Forms of “to be” itself is conjugated using a standard form followed by the simple personal pronoun.  The forms are:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        <\/th>Affirmative<\/th>Interrogative<\/th>Negative<\/th>Negative Interrogative<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
        Present<\/th>ta, t’<\/em><\/td>vel<\/em><\/td>cha nel<\/em><\/td>nagh vel<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        Past<\/th>va, v’<\/em><\/td>row<\/em><\/td>cha row<\/em><\/td>nagh row<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        Future<\/th>bee<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/td><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

        The usual construction is a form of ve <\/em>+ personal pronoun + verbal noun, e.g. ta mee creck <\/em>“I sell”, v’ee creck eeym <\/em>“she was selling butter”.  In present and imperfect constructions, a verbal noun beginning with a vowel is prefixed with g-<\/em>, e.g. ta mee geeck <\/em>“I am paying”. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

        The past tense of verbs can be formed with the preterite of the auxiliary janoo <\/em>“do”, e.g. ren ad creck <\/em>“they sold”. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

        The imperative may also be formed with janoo <\/em>“do”.  In the singular the form is jean <\/em>and the plural is jean-jee <\/em>(sometimes replaced with jean-shiu<\/em> in colloquial speech).  E.g. jean-jee creck <\/em>“buy!”.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        Prepositions<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        Like all Celtic languages, some Manx prepositions are ‘conjugated’ according to person, number and gender (in the 3rd person singular only).  The personal forms are given below in the order 1s, 2s, 3sm, 3sf, 1p, 2p, 3p:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        ass <\/em>‘out of’<\/th>ayns <\/em>‘in’<\/th>da <\/em>‘to’<\/th>ec<\/em> ‘at’<\/th>er <\/em>‘on’<\/th><\/tr>
        assym
        assyd
        ass
        assjee
        assdooin
        assdiu
        assdoo (-daue)<\/em><\/td>        		aynym
        aynyd
        ayn
        aynjee
        ayndooin
        ayndiu
        ayndoo (-daue)<\/em><\/td>        		dou
        dhyt
        da
        jee
        dooin
        diu
        daue<\/em><\/td>        		aym
        ayd
        echey
        eck
        ain
        eu
        oc<\/em><\/td>        		orrym
        ort
        er
        urree
        orrin
        erriu
        orroo<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        fo <\/em>‘under’<\/th>gys <\/em>‘to’<\/th>jeh <\/em>‘of’<\/th>lesh <\/em>‘with’<\/th>mysh <\/em>‘about’<\/th><\/tr>
        foym
        foyd
        fo
        foee
        foin
        feue
        foue<\/em><\/td>        		hym
        hood
        hyggey
        huic(k)
        hooin
        hiu
        huc<\/em><\/td>        		jeem
        jeed
        jeh
        j’ee
        jin
        jiu
        jeu<\/em><\/td>        		lhiam
        lhiat
        lesh
        lhee
        lhien
        lhiu
        lhieu<\/em><\/td>        		moom
        mood
        mych
        moee
        mooin
        miu
        moo, mymboo<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
        rish <\/em>‘to’<\/th>harrish <\/em>‘over’<\/th>liorish <\/em>‘by’<\/th>marish <\/em>‘with’<\/th>roish <\/em>‘before’<\/th><\/tr>
        rhym
        rhyt
        rish
        r’ee
        rooin
        riu
        roo<\/em><\/td>        		harrym
        harryd
        harrish
        harree
        harrin
        harriu, harrishdiu
        harroo, harrystoo<\/em><\/td>        		liorym
        liort
        liorish
        lioree
        liorin
        lieriu
        lioroo<\/em><\/td>        		marym
        mayrt
        marish
        maree
        marin
        meriu
        maroo<\/em><\/td>        		roym
        royd
        roish
        roee, rhymbee
        roin
        reue, rhymbiu
        roue, rhymboo<\/em><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

        Manx also makes use of compound prepositions<\/strong>, which usually consist of a preposition + noun, or a noun alone and are conjugated using the possessive adjectives, e.g:<\/p>\n\n\n\n