{"id":392,"date":"2021-05-28T11:05:33","date_gmt":"2021-05-28T11:05:33","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/?page_id=392"},"modified":"2021-05-30T18:35:04","modified_gmt":"2021-05-30T18:35:04","slug":"welsh","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"http:\/\/old-north.co.uk\/wordpress\/?page_id=392","title":{"rendered":"Welsh"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Welsh<\/strong>\u00a0(Cymraeg\u00a0<\/em>\/k\u0259m\u02c8raig\/) is a Brythonic Celtic language predominatly spoken in Wales, where it is an official language alongside English.\u00a0 It is also spoken in\u00a0Yr Wladfa<\/em>, a colony in Argentina founded in the 19th century, and in other parts of Britain.\u00a0<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Welsh of Wales has two main dialects: North<\/strong> and South<\/strong> Welsh.  They differ to a considerable degree in the colloquial or spoken language in matters of pronunciation, morphology and syntax.  The Standard Literary language is more conservative that the colloquial language and acts as something of a bridge between various dialects, being used in official and general publications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pronunciation and Orthography<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Alphabet<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

The Welsh alphabet has 28 letters, which includes several digraphs.  There are 7 vowels (including the semi-vowels i <\/em>and w<\/em>) and 21 consonants:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

a b c ch d dd e f ff g ng h i l ll m n o p ph r rh s t th u w y<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Note that digraphs such as ch <\/em>and ff <\/em>are considered single letters and have their own sections in the dictionary, so that e.g. ffa <\/em>‘beans’ follows fyny <\/em>‘upwards’, not festri <\/em>‘vestry’. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Vowels<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
<\/th>North<\/th>South<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
a<\/em><\/th>\/a\/
\/\u0251\u02d0\/<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
e<\/em><\/th>\/\u025b\/
\/e\u02d0\/<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
i<\/em><\/th>\/\u026a\/
\/i\u02d0\/<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
o<\/em><\/th>\/\u0254\/
\/o\u02d0\/<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr>
u<\/em><\/th>\/\u0268\/
\/\u0268\u02d0\/<\/td>		\/\u026a\/
\/i\u02d0\/<\/td><\/tr>
y<\/em><\/th>\/\u0268\/
\/\u0268\u02d0\/
\/\u0259\/<\/td>		\/\u026a\/
\/i\u02d0\/
\/\u0259\/
(\/\u0259\u02d0\/)<\/td><\/tr>
w<\/em><\/th>\/\u028a\/
\/u\u02d0\/<\/td>		<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
  • North Welsh distinguishes quality between i, u <\/em>and y <\/em>whilst South Welsh does not.<\/li>
  • The letter y <\/em>represents \/\u0259(:)\/ when it occurs in non-final syllables and a few proclitics; elsewhere it is the same sound as u<\/em>.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

    Vowel Length<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

    Each vowel may be long or short.  Long vowels occur in stressed syllables:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    • ending in a vowel (e.g. ci <\/em>‘dog’ \/ki:\/)<\/li>
    • a voiced stop (e.g. mab <\/em>‘son’ \/ma:b\/)<\/li>
    • a fricative (e.g. glas <\/em>‘blue’ \/gla:s\/)<\/li>
    • -s <\/em>+ another consonant (e.g. cosb <\/em>‘punishment’ \/ko:sp\/) – North Wales only<\/li>
    • -ll + <\/em>another consonant (e.g. gwallt <\/em>‘hair’ \/gwa:\u026ct\/) – North Wales only<\/li>
    • with word final -ll <\/em>(e.g. gwell <\/em>‘better’ \/gwe:\u026c\/) – South Wales only<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

      In North Wales, long vowels are restricted to word final stressed syllables, but in South Wales, any stressed syllable may be long.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Short vowels occur in all unstressed syllables (including proclitics) and in stressed syllables:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      • ending in a voiceless plosive (e.g. het <\/em>‘hat’ \/h\u025bt\/)<\/li>
      • ending in -m <\/em>or -ng <\/em>(e.g. llong <\/em>‘ship’ \/\u026c\u0254\u014b\/)<\/li>
      • ending in a consonant cluster, except those noted above (e.g. cant <\/em>‘hundred’ \/kant\/)<\/li>
      • with word final -ll  <\/em>(e.g. gwell<\/em> ‘better’ \/gw\u025b\u026c\/) – North Wales only<\/li>
      • with medial -ll- <\/em>or -s- <\/em>(e.g. celli <\/em>‘grove’ \/k\u025b\u026c\u026a\/)<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

        Vowel length before -l, -n <\/em>and -r <\/em>is not predictable from spelling and must be learnt.  When two homographs occur with different vowel lengths, a long vowel is marked with a circumflex accent (e.g. gwyn <\/em>‘white’ \/gw\u026an\/ but gw\u0177n <\/em>‘ache’ \/gwi:n\/, cor <\/em>‘dwarf’ \/k\u0254r\/ but c\u00f4r <\/em>‘choir’ \/ko:r\/). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

        The circumflex is also used to mark long vowels when they occur in short environments (e.g. ffr\u00e2m <\/em>‘frame’).  Similarly, the grave accent denotes a short vowel where a long one would be expected (e.g. m\u1e81g <\/em>‘mug’).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        Stress<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        Diphthongs<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
        <\/th>North<\/th>South<\/th><\/tr>
        ae<\/em><\/th>\/\u0251:\u0268\/<\/td>\/ai\/<\/td><\/tr>
        ai<\/em><\/th>\/ai\/<\/td><\/tr>
        au<\/em><\/th>\/a\u0268\/<\/td><\/tr>
        aw<\/em><\/th>\/au\/<\/td><\/tr>
        ei<\/em><\/th>\/\u0259i\/<\/td>\/\u0259i\/<\/td><\/tr>
        eu<\/em><\/th>\/\u0259\u0268\/<\/td><\/tr>
        ew<\/em><\/th>\/\u025bu\/<\/td><\/tr>
        ey<\/em><\/th>\/\u0259\u0268\/<\/td>\/\u0259i\/<\/td><\/tr>
        iw<\/em><\/th>\/\u026au\/<\/td><\/tr>
        oe<\/em><\/th>\/\u0254\u0268\/<\/td>\/\u0254i\/<\/td><\/tr>
        oi<\/em><\/th>\/\u0254i\/<\/td><\/tr>
        ou<\/em><\/th>\/\u0254\u0268\/<\/td><\/tr>
        ow<\/em><\/th>\/\u0254u\/<\/td><\/tr>
        uw<\/em><\/th>\/\u0268u\/<\/td>\/\u026au\/<\/td><\/tr>
        \u0175y, wy<\/em><\/th>\/\u028a\u0268\/<\/td>\/\u028ai\/<\/td><\/tr>
        yw<\/em><\/th>\/\u0268u\/
        \/\u0259u\/<\/td>        		\/\u026au\/
        \/\u0259u\/<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
        • when the diphthong au <\/em>represents the plural termination it is pronounced \/a\/ in North Wales and \/e\/ in South Wales (e.g. dagrau <\/em>‘tears’ \/dagra\/ or \/dagre\/).<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

          Consonants<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
          <\/th>Labial<\/th>Labiodental<\/th>Dental<\/th>Alveolar<\/th>Palatal<\/th>Velar<\/th>Glottal<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
          Stop<\/th>p <\/em>\/p\/
          b <\/em>\/b\/<\/td>          		<\/td> <\/td>t <\/em>\/t\/
          d <\/em>\/d\/<\/td>          		 <\/td>c <\/em>\/k\/
          g <\/em>\/g\/<\/td>          		<\/td><\/tr>
          Nasal<\/th>mh <\/em>\/m\u0325\/
          m <\/em>\/m\/<\/td>          		<\/td><\/td>nh <\/em>\/n\u0325\/
          n <\/em>\/n\/<\/td>          		 <\/td>ngh <\/em>\/\u014b\u030a\/
          ng <\/em>\/\u014b\/<\/td>          		<\/td><\/tr>
          Trill<\/th> <\/td> <\/td> <\/td>rh <\/em>\/r\u0325\/
          r <\/em>\/r\/<\/td>          		 <\/td> <\/td><\/td><\/tr>
          Fricative<\/th><\/td>ff <\/em>\/f\/
          f <\/em>\/v\/<\/td>          		th <\/em>\/\u03b8\/
          dd <\/em>\/\u00f0\/<\/td>          		s <\/em>\/s\/<\/td>si <\/em>\/\u0283\/<\/td>ch <\/em>\/x\/<\/td>h <\/em>\/h\/<\/td><\/tr>
          Approximant<\/th> <\/td>w <\/em>\/w\/<\/td> <\/td> ll <\/em>\/\u026c\/
          l <\/em>\/l\/<\/td>          		 i <\/em>\/j\/<\/td> <\/td><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
          • the digraph gw <\/em>is pronounced \/gw\/ before a vowel, as in English Gwen<\/em>.  Before a consonant (chiefly r, n <\/em>and l<\/em>) it is \/g\u02b7\/ – a rounded g <\/em>sound (e.g. gwlad <\/em>‘country’ \/g\u02b7la:d\/).<\/li>
          • the sounds \/z\/, \/\u02a4\/ (as in English judge<\/em>) and \/\u02a7\/ (as in English church<\/em>) mostly only occur in borrowings (e.g. garej <\/em>‘garage’).<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

            Initial Mutations<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

            Welsh has three initial mutations: soft mutation<\/strong>, spirant mutation <\/strong>and nasal mutation<\/strong>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

            Radical<\/th>Soft<\/th>Nasal<\/th>Spirant<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
            p<\/em><\/td>b<\/em><\/td>mh<\/em><\/td>ph<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
            t<\/em><\/td>d<\/em><\/td>nh<\/em><\/td>th<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
            c<\/em><\/td>g<\/em><\/td>ngh<\/em><\/td>ch<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
            b<\/em><\/td>f<\/em><\/td>m<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/tr>
            d<\/em><\/td>dd<\/em><\/td>n<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/tr>
            g<\/em><\/td>–<\/em><\/td>ng<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/tr>
            m<\/em><\/td>f<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/td><\/tr>
            ll<\/em><\/td>l<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/td><\/tr>
            rh<\/em><\/td>r<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
            • the soft mutation of ll <\/em>and rh <\/em>does not occur in all environments (e.g. the feminine noun mam <\/em>‘mother’ mutates following the article – y fam <\/em>– but the feminine noun lleian <\/em>‘nun’ does not – y lleian<\/em>). <\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

              Welsh also has aspiration<\/strong>, which causes an initial h- <\/em>to be added to vowel-initial words (e.g. ei hafal <\/em>‘her apple’).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

              Grammar<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

              Articles<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

              Welsh has no indefinite article.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

              The definite article has three forms:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

              • y <\/em>is used before consonants (e.g. y gath<\/em> ‘the cat’, y t\u0177 <\/em>‘the house’).<\/li>
              • yr <\/em>is used before vowels and h- <\/em>(e.g. yr afal <\/em>‘the apple’. yr haf <\/em>‘the summer’).<\/li>
              • ‘r <\/em>is used before consonants and vowels when the preceding word ends in a vowel (e.g. i’r t\u0177 <\/em>‘to the house’, a’r afal <\/em>‘and the apple’).<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

                Nouns<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

                Welsh nouns are either masculine or feminine in gender.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                Plurals may be formed regularly in one of six ways:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                • by adding an ending, such as -au, -iau, -on, -ion, -i, -edd, -ydd, -oedd, -ed, -aint, -od <\/em>or -iaid<\/em> (e.g. afalau <\/em>‘apples’, cathod <\/em>‘cats’, eglwysydd <\/em>‘churches’)<\/li>
                • by changing an internal vowel (e.g. dafad <\/em>‘sheep’ \u2192 defaid<\/em>, oen <\/em>‘lamb’ \u2192 wyn<\/em>)<\/li>
                • with an ending and vowel change (e.g. gwraig <\/em>‘wife’ \u2192 gwragedd<\/em>, iaith <\/em>‘language’ \u2192 ieithoedd<\/em>)<\/li>
                • by dropping the singular endings -yn<\/em> or -en <\/em>(e.g. pysgodyn <\/em>‘fish’ \u2192 pysgod<\/em>)<\/li>
                • by dropping an ending with a vowel change (e.g. asen <\/em>‘rib’ \u2192 ais<\/em>)<\/li>
                • by swapping a singular for a plural ending (e.g. cwningen <\/em>‘rabbit’ \u2192 cwningod<\/em>)<\/li>
                • by swapping endings with a vowel change (e.g. miaren <\/em>‘bramble’ \u2192 mieri<\/em>)<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

                  The following common nouns have irregular plurals:  blwyddyn <\/em>‘year’ \u2192 blynyddoedd\/blynedd,<\/em> ci <\/em>‘dog’ \u2192 c\u0175n<\/em>, chwaer <\/em>‘sister’ \u2192 chwiorydd<\/em>, llaw<\/em> ‘hand’ \u2192 dwylo<\/em>, troed<\/em> ‘foot’ \u2192 traed<\/em>, t\u0177<\/em> ‘house’ \u2192 tai<\/em>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  Adjectives<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

                  Adjectives should agree with the noun they modify in gender and number. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  Gender is only marked in adjectives which have w <\/em>or y <\/em>as their main vowel.  In the feminine, these become o <\/em>and e <\/em>respectively (e.g. crwm <\/em>‘bent’ (m.) \u2192 cron <\/em>(f.), gwyn ‘<\/em>white’ (m.) \u2192 gwen<\/em> (f.)).  Some adjectives do not undergo this change (e.g. drwg <\/em>‘bad’, gwyllt <\/em>‘wild’). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  Plural adjectives (all of which contain a<\/em>) may be marked by a change of vowel (e.g. marw <\/em>‘dead’ \u2192 meirw<\/em>, caled <\/em>‘hard’ \u2192 celyd<\/em>).  Other adjectives may add the termination -ion <\/em>in the plural (e.g. hir <\/em>‘long’ \u2192 hirion<\/em>, balch <\/em>‘proud’ \u2192 beilchion<\/em>).  A few take -on <\/em>instead (e.g. du <\/em>‘black’ \u2192 duon<\/em>, tenau <\/em>‘thin’ \u2192 teneuon).  <\/em>Many adjectives do not change in the plural, including many derived from other parts of speech (e.g. da <\/em>‘good’, pur <\/em>‘pure’, gwlatgar <\/em>‘patriotic’).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  The ending -ion <\/em>is also used to form plural or group nouns from adjectives (e.g. dall <\/em>‘blind’ \u2192 deillion <\/em>‘the blind’, enwog <\/em>‘famous’ \u2192 enwogion <\/em>‘the famous’).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  Comparison<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

                  There are three degrees of comparison beyond the positive: the equative, the comparative and the superlative.  These may be formed with terminations or periphrasis.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  The equative <\/strong>is formed with the ending -ed<\/em>, which causes provection or hardening to the preceding consonant (e.g. tlawd <\/em>‘poor’ \u2192 tloted <\/em>‘as poor’, teg <\/em>‘fair’ \u2192 teced <\/em>‘as fair’).  This form of the adjective is usually preceded by the conjunction cyn <\/em>‘as’ and followed by \u00e2(g) <\/em>‘as’ (e.g. cyn deced \u00e2 thi <\/em>‘as fair as you’).  Alternatively, the positive adjective can be preceded by mor <\/em>‘as’ to form the equative (e.g. mor drwm \u00e2 phlwm <\/em>‘as heavy as lead’).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  The comparative <\/strong>is formed by adding -ach <\/em>(provecting) or with mwy <\/em>‘more’ (e.g. tlotach <\/em>‘poorer’, tecach <\/em>‘fairer’, mwy trwm <\/em>‘heavier’).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  The superlative <\/strong>takes the ending -af <\/em>(provecting; colloquially -a<\/em>) or the adverb mwyaf <\/em>‘most’ (e.g. tlotaf <\/em>‘poorest’, tecaf <\/em>‘fairest’, mwyaf trwm <\/em>‘heaviest’).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  The following adjectives are compared irregularly:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  Positive<\/th>Equative<\/th>Comparative<\/th>Superlative<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
                  agos<\/em> ‘near’<\/td>nesed<\/em><\/td>nes<\/em><\/td>nesaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  anodd<\/em> ‘difficult’<\/td>anhawsed<\/em><\/td>anos<\/em><\/td>anhawsaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  bach<\/em>, bychan<\/em> ‘small’<\/td>lleied<\/em><\/td>llai<\/em><\/td>lleiaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  da<\/em> ‘good’<\/td>cystal<\/em><\/td>gwell<\/em><\/td>gorau<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  drwg<\/em> ‘bad’<\/td>cynddrwg<\/em><\/td>gwaeth<\/em><\/td>gwaethaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  hawdd<\/em> ‘easy’<\/td>hawsed<\/em><\/td>haws<\/em><\/td>hawsaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  hen<\/em> ‘old’<\/td>hyned<\/em><\/td>hyn<\/em><\/td>hynaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  hir<\/em> ‘long’<\/td>cyhyd<\/em><\/td>hwy<\/em><\/td>hwyaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  ieuanc<\/em> ‘young’<\/td>ieuanged<\/em><\/td>iau<\/em><\/td>ieuaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  isel<\/em> ‘low’<\/td>ised<\/em><\/td>is<\/em><\/td>isaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  llydan<\/em> ‘wide’<\/td>cyfled, lleted<\/em><\/td>lletach<\/em><\/td>lletaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  mawr<\/em> ‘big’<\/td>cymaint<\/em><\/td>mwy<\/em><\/td>mwyaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  uchel<\/em> ‘high’<\/td>cyfuwch<\/em><\/td>uwch<\/em><\/td>uchaf<\/em><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

                  Numerals<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
                  <\/th>Cardinal<\/th>Ordinal<\/th><\/th>Cardinal<\/th>Ordinal<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
                  1<\/td>un<\/em><\/td>cyntaf<\/em><\/td>21<\/td>un ar hugain<\/em><\/td>unfed ar hugain<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  2<\/td>dau, dwy<\/em><\/td>ail<\/em><\/td>30<\/td>deg ar hugain<\/em><\/td>degfed ar hugain<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  3<\/td>tri, tair<\/em><\/td>trydydd, trydedd<\/em><\/td>31<\/td>un ar ddeg ar hugain<\/em><\/td>un ar ddeg ar hugain<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  4<\/td>pedwar, pedair<\/em><\/td>perwerydd, pedwaredd<\/em><\/td>40<\/td>deugain<\/em><\/td>deugeinfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  5<\/td>pump<\/em><\/td>pumed<\/em><\/td>50<\/td>hanner cant<\/em><\/td>hanner canfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  6<\/td>chwe(ch)<\/em><\/td>chweched<\/em><\/td>60<\/td>trigain<\/em><\/td>trigeinfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  7<\/td>saith<\/em><\/td>seithfed<\/em><\/td>70<\/td>deg ar drigain<\/em><\/td>degfed ar drigain<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  8<\/td>wyth<\/em><\/td>wythfed<\/em><\/td>80<\/td>pedwar ugain<\/em><\/td>pedwar ugainfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  9<\/td>naw<\/em><\/td>nawfed<\/em><\/td>90<\/td>deg ar bedwar ugain<\/em><\/td>degfed ar bedwar ugain<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  10<\/td>deg<\/em><\/td>degfed<\/em><\/td>100<\/td>cant<\/em><\/td>canfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  11<\/td>un ar ddeg<\/em><\/td>unfed ar ddeg<\/em><\/td>120<\/td>chweugain<\/em><\/td>chweugainfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  12<\/td>deuddeg<\/em><\/td>deuddegfed<\/em><\/td>140<\/td>saith ugain<\/em><\/td>saith ugainfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  13<\/td>tri\/tair ar ddeg<\/em><\/td>trydydd\/trydedd ar ddeg<\/em><\/td>150<\/td>cant hanner cant<\/em><\/td>cant hanner canfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  14<\/td>pedwar\/pedair ar ddeg<\/em><\/td>pedwerydd\/edd ar ddeg<\/em><\/td>160<\/td>wyth ugain<\/em><\/td>wyth ugainfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  15<\/td>pymtheg<\/em><\/td>pymthegfed<\/em><\/td>180<\/td>naw ugain<\/em><\/td>naw ugainfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  16<\/td>un ar bymtheg<\/em><\/td>unfed ar bymtheg<\/em><\/td>200<\/td>dau gant<\/em><\/td>dau ganfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  17<\/td>dau\/dwy ar bymtheg<\/em><\/td>ail ar bymtheg<\/em><\/td>1000<\/td>mil<\/em><\/td>milfed<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  18<\/td>deunaw<\/em><\/td>deunawfed<\/em><\/td> <\/td><\/td><\/td><\/tr>
                  19<\/td>pedwar\/pedair ar bymtheg<\/em><\/td>pedwerydd\/edd ar bymtheg<\/em><\/td> <\/td><\/td><\/td><\/tr>
                  20<\/td>ugain<\/em><\/td>ugeinfed<\/em><\/td> <\/td><\/td><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

                  Pronouns<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

                  Personal<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
                  <\/th>Simple<\/th>Reduplicated<\/th>Conjunctive<\/th>Prefixed<\/th>Infixed Genitive<\/th>Infixed Accusative<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
                  1sg<\/th>mi<\/em><\/td>myfi<\/em><\/td>minnau<\/em><\/td>fy<\/em><\/td>‘m<\/em><\/td>‘m<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  2sg<\/th>ti<\/em><\/td>tydi<\/em><\/td>tithau<\/em><\/td>dy<\/em><\/td>‘th<\/em><\/td>‘th<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  3sg m<\/th>ef<\/em><\/td>efe, ef\u00f4<\/em><\/td>yntau<\/em><\/td>ei<\/em><\/td>‘i, ‘w<\/em><\/td>‘i, -s<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  3sg f<\/th>hi<\/em><\/td>hyhi<\/em><\/td>hithau<\/em><\/td>ei<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  1pl<\/th>ni<\/em><\/td>nyni<\/em><\/td>ninnau<\/em><\/td>ein<\/em><\/td>‘n<\/em><\/td>‘n<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  2pl<\/th>chwi<\/em><\/td>chwychwi<\/em><\/td>chwithau<\/em><\/td>eich<\/em><\/td>‘ch<\/em><\/td>‘ch<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                  3pl<\/th>hwy(nt)<\/em><\/td>hwynt-hwy<\/em><\/td>hwythau<\/em><\/td>eu<\/em><\/td>‘u, ‘w<\/em><\/td>‘u, -s<\/em><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

                  The simple <\/strong>pronouns are used:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  • as the object of a verb (e.g. esgusodwch fi <\/em>‘excuse me’).<\/li>
                  • before the relative\/preverbal particle a <\/em>(e.g. ef<\/em><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

                    The reduplicated <\/strong>forms are used in the same ways as the simple forms, but are more emphatic.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                    The conjunctive <\/strong>pronouns are syntactically the same as the simple pronouns, but mean, for example ‘you also’, ‘I, for my part’ or ‘they, on the other hand’. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

                    The prefixed <\/strong>pronouns function as:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                    • possessive adjectives (e.g. ei d\u0177 <\/em>‘his house’).<\/li>
                    • the object of a verb-noun (e.g. eu gweld <\/em>‘seeing them’).<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

                      Infixed genitive <\/strong>pronouns function in the same ways as prefixed pronouns, but are joined to the preceding word:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                      • ‘m <\/em>and ‘th <\/em>can only be used following a <\/em>‘and’, \u00e2 <\/em>‘with; as’, gyda <\/em>‘with’, tua <\/em>‘towards’, efo <\/em>‘with’, na <\/em>‘than; nor’, i <\/em>‘to’, o <\/em>‘of’ and mo <\/em>‘not of’ (e.g. a’th dad <\/em>‘and your father’).<\/li>
                      • the other pronouns may be used following any word ending in a vowel or diphthong.<\/li>
                      • the 3rd person ‘w <\/em>is only used following the preposition i <\/em>‘to’<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

                        Infixed accusative <\/strong>forms are used before verbs to show its object. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

                        • ‘m <\/em>and ‘th <\/em>can only be used following verbal particles and the relative a <\/em>(e.g. pa le y’th welais <\/em>‘where did I see you?’<\/li>
                        • other forms may be used following any vowel or diphthong.<\/li>
                        • 3rd person -s <\/em>is used following ni, na <\/em>‘not’, oni <\/em>‘if not’, pe <\/em>‘if’.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n

                          Verbs<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

                          Regular Verb Endings<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
                          <\/th>1sg<\/th>2sg<\/th>3sg<\/th>1pl<\/th>2pl<\/th>3pl<\/th>Impers.<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
                          Present Indicative<\/th>-af<\/em><\/td>-i<\/em><\/td>–<\/em><\/td>-wn<\/em><\/td>-wch<\/em><\/td>-ant<\/em><\/td>-ir<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Imperfect Indicative<\/th>-wn<\/em><\/td>-it<\/em><\/td>-ai<\/em><\/td>-em<\/em><\/td>-ech<\/em><\/td>-ent<\/em><\/td>-id<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Past Indicative<\/th>-ais<\/em><\/td>-aist<\/em><\/td>-odd<\/em><\/td>-asom<\/em><\/td>-asoch<\/em><\/td>-asant<\/em><\/td>-wyd<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Pluperfect Indicative<\/th>-aswn<\/em><\/td>-asit<\/em><\/td>-asai<\/em><\/td>-asem<\/em><\/td>-asech<\/em><\/td>-asent<\/em><\/td>-asid<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Present Subjunctive<\/th>-wyf<\/em><\/td>-ych<\/em><\/td>-o<\/em><\/td>-om<\/em><\/td>-och<\/em><\/td>-ont<\/em><\/td>-er<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Imperfect Subjunctive<\/th>-wn<\/em><\/td>-it<\/em><\/td>-ai<\/em><\/td>-em<\/em><\/td>-ech<\/em><\/td>-ent<\/em><\/td>-id<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Imperative<\/th><\/td>–<\/em><\/td>-ed<\/em><\/td>-wn<\/em><\/td>-wch<\/em><\/td>-ent<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

                          Irregular Verbs<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
                          bod <\/em>“be”<\/th>1sg<\/th>2sg<\/th>3sg<\/th>1pl<\/th>2pl<\/th>3pl<\/th>Impers.<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
                          Present Indicative<\/th>wyf<\/em><\/td>wyt<\/em><\/td>yw<\/em><\/td>\u0177m<\/em><\/td>ych<\/em><\/td>\u0177nt<\/em><\/td>ys<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Future Indicative<\/th>byddaf<\/em><\/td>byddi<\/em><\/td>bydd<\/em><\/td>byddwn<\/em><\/td>byddwch<\/em><\/td>byddant<\/em><\/td>byddir<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Imperfect Indicative<\/th>oeddwn<\/em><\/td>oeddit<\/em><\/td>oedd<\/em><\/td>oeddem<\/em><\/td>oeddech<\/em><\/td>oeddynt<\/em><\/td>oeddid<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Consuetudinal Imperfect<\/th>byddwn<\/em><\/td>byddit<\/em><\/td>byddai<\/em><\/td>byddem<\/em><\/td>byddech<\/em><\/td>byddent<\/em><\/td>byddid<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Past Indicative<\/th>b\u00fbm<\/em><\/td>buost<\/em><\/td>bu<\/em><\/td>buom<\/em><\/td>buoch<\/em><\/td>buant<\/em><\/td>buwyd<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Pluperfect Indicative<\/th>buaswn<\/em><\/td>buasit<\/em><\/td>buasai<\/em><\/td>buasem<\/em><\/td>buasech<\/em><\/td>buasent<\/em><\/td>buasid<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Present Subjunctive<\/th>bwyf<\/em><\/td>bych<\/em><\/td>bo<\/em><\/td>b\u00f4m<\/em><\/td>boch<\/em><\/td>b\u00f4nt<\/em><\/td>bydder<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Imperfect Subjunctive<\/th>bawn<\/em><\/td>bait<\/em><\/td>bai<\/em><\/td>baem<\/em><\/td>baech<\/em><\/td>baent<\/em><\/td>byddid<\/em><\/td><\/tr>
                          Imperative<\/th><\/td>bydd<\/em><\/td>boed, bid<\/em><\/td>byddwn<\/em><\/td>byddwch<\/em><\/td>byddent<\/em><\/td><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

                          In addition to the regular tenses, bod <\/em>has a separate future <\/strong>tense and a consuetudinal <\/strong>or habitual imperfect. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

                          The present indicative forms are sometimes found with the prefix yd- <\/em>(e.g. ydwyf, ydwyt <\/em>etc.).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                          The 3rd person present indicative has a number of forms:<\/p>\n\n\n\n